| Languages of India | |
|---|---|
| Official language(s) | Hindi, English, others co-official in various regions. |
| Main foreign language(s) | English, French, Portuguese others historically |
The languages of India belong to several major linguistic families, the two largest being the Indo-European languages---Indo-Aryan (spoken by 70% Indians) and the Dravidian languages, (spoken by 22% Indians). Other languages spoken in India come mainly from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families, in addition to a few language isolates.[1]
Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred[2]; the 1961 census recognized 1,652[3] (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 29 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.[4]
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[edit] History
The northern Indian languages from the Indo-European family evolved from Old Indo-Aryan such as Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus for a specific time where the modern north Indian languages such as Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Bengali and Oriya emerged, but AD 1000 is commonly accepted.[5] Each language had different influences, with Hindi/Urdu and closely related Hindustani languages being strongly influenced by Persian.
The Dravidian languages of South India had a history independent of Sanskrit. The major Dravidian languages are Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu. The Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman languages of North-East India also have an independent history.
[edit] Inventories
Linguists generally distinguish the terms "language" and "dialects" on the basis of 'mutual comprehension'. The Indian census uses two specific classifications in its own unique way: (1)'language' and (2) 'mother tongue'. The 'mother tongues' are grouped within each 'language'. Many 'mother tongues' so defined would be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many 'mother tongues' with tens of millions of speakers that is officially grouped under the 'language' Hindi.
The Indian census of 1961 recognised 1,652 different languages in India (including languages not native to the subcontinent). The 1991 census recognizes 1,576 classified "mother tongues"[6] SIL Ethnologue lists 415 living "Languages of India" (out of 6,912 worldwide).
According to the 1991 census, 22 'languages' had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).[6]
According to the most recent census of 2001, 29 'languages' have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers.
The government of India has given 22 "languages of the 8th Schedule" the status of official language. The number of languages given this status has increased through the political process. Some languages with a large number of speakers still do not have this status, the largest of these being Bhili/Bhiladi with some 9.6 million native speakers (ranked 14th), followed by Santali with 6.5 million speakers (ranked 15th), Gondi with 2.7 million speakers(ranked 18th) and Khandesi with 2.1 million speakers (ranked 22nd). On the other hand, 2 languages with fewer than 2 million native speakers have recently been included in the 8th Schedule for mostly political reasons: Manipuri/Maithei with 1.5 million speakers (ranked 25th) and Bodo with 1.4 million speakers (ranked 26th). For cultural/historical reasons Sanskrit is on the official schedule, though only 14 thousand people claim it to be their language, but many more study it in school as the classical language of India.
[edit] Language families
The languages of India may be grouped by major language families. The largest of these in terms of speakers is the Indo-European family, predominantly represented in its Indo-Aryan branch (accounting for some 700 million speakers), but also including minority languages such as Persian, Portuguese or French, and English as lingua franca. The second largest is the Dravidian family, accounting for some 200 million speakers. Minor linguistic families include the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman families (with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively). Kashmiri, considered a Dardic language, has some 4.6 million speakers in India. There is also a language isolate, the Nihali language.
[edit] Official languages
The official language of the Republic of India is Hindi, and its subsidiary official language is English.[7]
The individual states can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. For example, the state of Tamil Nadu has Tamil as its sole official language, while the state of Jammu and Kashmir has Kashmiri, Urdu and Dogri as its official languages.
Article 345 of the Indian constitution provides recognition to "official languages" of the union to include any one or more of the languages in use in the state or Hindi language adopted by a state legislature as the official language of that state. Until the Twenty-First Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18[8]. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawn on socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration and education.
The following table lists the languages set out in the eighth schedule as of May 2007:[9]
Hindi is an official language of the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and the National Capital, the Territory of Delhi. Bengali is the official language of West Bengal and certain parts of the North-east. Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra. Punjabi is the official language of Punjab, Haryana. Gujarati is the official language of Gujarat. Tamil is the official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Malayalam is the official language of Kerala and Lakshadweep. Kannada is the official language of Karnataka. Telugu is the official language of Andhra Pradesh. Oriya is the official language of Orissa. Assamese is the official language of Assam; it's spoken widely in many of the seven northeastern states. English is the co-official language of the Indian Union, and each of the several states mentioned above may also have another co-official language.
[edit] Official classical languages
In 2004, the Government of India declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "classical language" in India.[10] Languages thus far declared to be "classical" are Tamil (in 2004),[11] Sanskrit (in 2005),[12] Kannada (in 2008), and Telugu (in 2008).[13]
Experts consulted by the government and the Sahitya Akademi (Literary Academy) of India recommended against awarding the label to any language. In contrast, Dr. George Hart, a Professor of Tamil and Sanskrit at the University of California, Berkeley, supported classifying Tamil as a classical language; however, he stated that no other modern Indian language can be called classical. According to him, "To qualify as a classical tradition, a language must fit several criteria: it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own not as an offshoot of another tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich body of ancient literature. Unlike the other modern languages of India, Tamil meets each of these requirements."[14]
In 2005, Sanskrit, which already had special status in Article 351 of the Constitution of India as the primary source language for the development of the official language Hindi,[15] was also declared to be a classical language; this was followed by similar declarations for Kannada and Telugu in 2008, based on the recommendation of a committee of linguistic experts constituted by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India.[13]
In a 2006 press release, Minister of Tourism & Culture Ambika Soni told the Rajya Sabha the following criteria were laid down to determine the eligibility of languages to be considered for classification as a "classical Language",[16]
| “ | High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500-2000 years; A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers; The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community; The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots. | ” |
Pali is a candidate for classical language status.
[edit] Language conflicts
There are some significant conflicts over linguistic rights in India.
The first major linguistic conflict took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the official language of India, known as Anti-Hindi agitations. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing DMK to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu.[2] Strong regional language pride is also found in other Indian states such as Bengal, Maharashtra, Karnataka.[citation needed] Fears of local languages being wiped out[citation needed] has forced Maharashtra and Karnataka Governments to make the local languages compulsory in educational institutions [3].
The Government of India attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), Mysore, a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, Ministry of Human Resource Development.
[edit] Writing systems
Indian languages have corresponding distinct alphabets. The two major families are those of the Dravidian languages and those of the Indo-Aryan languages, the former largely confined to the south and the latter to the north. Urdu and sometimes Kashmiri, Sindhi and Panjabi are written in modified versions of the Arabic script. Except for these languages, the alphabets of Indian languages are native to India. Most scholars consider these Indic scripts a distant offshoot of the Aramaic alphabet[citation needed], although there are differing opinions.
[edit] Romanization
| unvoiced consonants | voiced consonants | nasals | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| unaspirated | aspirated | unaspirated | aspirated | ||
| velar plosives | k | kh | g | gh | ṅ |
| palatal affricates | c | ch | j | jh | ñ |
| retroflex plosives | ṭ | ṭh | ḍ | ḍh | ṇ |
| dental plosives | t | th | d | dh | n |
| bilabial plosives | p | ph | b | bh | m |
| glides and approximants | y | r | l | v |
| fricatives | ś | ṣ | s | h |
[edit] Footnotes and references
- ^ See: Nihali language, Burushaski language, Andamanese languages
- ^ More than a thousand including major dialects. The 1991 census recognized "1576 rationalized mother tongues" which were further grouped into language categories (Indian Census)
- ^ [1]
- ^ Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. (2006) Bilingualism in South Asia. In: Handbook of Bilingualism, pp. 780-807. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
- ^ Shapiro, M: Hindi.
- ^ a b Indian Census
- ^ 1. Schwartzberg, Joseph E., 2007. Encyclopedia Britannica, India—Linguistic Composition. Quote: "By far the most widely spoken is Hindi, the country's official language, with more than 300 million speakers." 2. Oldenburg, Phillip. (1997-2007) Encarta Encyclopedia "India: Official Languages." Quote: "Hindi is the main language of more than 40 percent of the population. No single language other than Hindi can claim speakers among even 10 percent of the total population. Hindi was therefore made India’s official language in 1965. English, which was associated with British rule, was retained as an option for official use because some non-Hindi speakers, particularly in Tamil Nādu, opposed the sole official use of Hindi." 3. United Kingdom, Foreign and Commonwealth Office: India—Country Profile. Quote: "The official language of India is Hindi written in the Devanagari script and spoken by some 30% of the population as a first language. Since 1965 English has been recognised as an 'associated language'." 4. UNESCO: Education for All—The Nine Largest Countries Quote: "Hindi is the language of 30% of the population and the official language of India." 5. United States Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Profile: India Quote: "Languages: Hindi is the official language and the most commonly spoken, but not all dialects are mutually comprehensible. English also has official status and is widely used in business and politics, although knowledge of English varies widely from fluency to knowledge of just a few words." 6 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Country Profile: India Quote: "Hindi is constitutionally designated as the official language of India, with English as an associate official language."
- ^ "Legislation: Legislation dealing with the use of languages". Constitution of India. Articles 29, 30, 120, 210, 343-351 as amended in the 21st and 71st Amendments.
- ^ Constitution of India, page 330, EIGHTH SCHEDULE, Articles 344 (1) and 351]. Languages.
- ^ "India sets up classical languages". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3667032.stm. Retrieved on 2007-05-01.
- ^ http://www.hindu.com/2004/09/18/stories/2004091806530100.htm
- ^ http://www.hindu.com/2005/10/28/stories/2005102809281200.htm
- ^ a b "Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages". Press Information Bureau. Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India. http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=44340. Retrieved on 2008-10-31.
- ^ Classical Language Status for Tamil
- ^ Constitution of India, Part XVII.—Official Language.—Art. 351. Page 217 Quote: "It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages."
- ^ "CLASSICAL LANGUAGE STATUS TO KANNADA". Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 2006-08-08. http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page1.asp?relid=19653. Retrieved on 2008-11-06.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- http://www.languageinindia.com/
- Languages of India (SIL Ethnologue list)
- Languages and Scripts of India
- Reconciling Linguistic Diversity: The History and the Future of Language Policy in India by Jason Baldridge
- Words and phrases in 26 Indian languages
- Titus - Languages of India
- Diversity of Languages in India
- KeyTrans Hindi intelligent transliteration email and spell check
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